Eight thousand years ago, a small group station of seminate hunter-gatherers were the only Huguy beings who roamed the lush green forests of Europe. Archaeological excavations in caves and elsewhere have exposed evidence in their mesolithic technology: flint-tipped machinery with which they fished, hunted deer and uros (a species of ox now extinct) and collected wild plants. The Mabig apple had black hair and blue eyes, advanced recent genetic studies, and the few skeletons discovered so far mean they were giant and muscular. Their languages remain mysterious to this day.
Three millennia later, the forests they inhabited had given way to wheat and lentil fields. Farmers have ruled the continent. The transition was dazzling even for 19th-century archaeologists, whose excavations revealed puppy bones, pottery containing traces of grains and, most intriguing of all, cemeteries whose riddles are about to be solved. Agriculture has not only brought a new economic model, but has also brought metallic tools, new diets and land use patterns, a new relationship of relationship with nature.
For 150 years, researchers debated whether farmers had brought their Neolithic culture from the Middle East to Europe or whether only their concepts traveled. However, in the early 2000s, geneticists such as Martin Richards, then at Oxford University, and others studied patterns of variation in fashionable genes to produce irrefutable evidence that farmers arrived, crossing the Aegean and Bosphorus to succeed in Greece and the Balkan Peninsula, respectively. . From there, they spread north and west. Then Svante Pebo, of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Gerguyy, and others, learned to extract the DNA from the ancient remains of huguy and read it. This technological revolution has brought with it an unprecedented collaboration between archaeologists and geneticists, who have been quick to characterize the DNA of other Americans who died in prehistoric colonies of hunter-gatherers or farmers.
Since 2014, when archaeologist Cristina Gamba, then at Trinity College Dublin, and her colleagues discovered a hunter-gatherer bone in Hungary’s first farming community, a surprisingly complex and multifaceted picture of citizen-immigrant encounters has emerged. In some places, the 2 group stations became concerned from the moment they met; in others, they have kept their distance for centuries, even millennia. Sometimes farmers worshipped their predecessors; on other occasions, they were dehumanized and subjugated. However, a transparent trend is evident. As the decades passed and farmers multiplied, assimilated and replaced hunter-gatherers, pushing those who stayed away, whether the geographic best friend and best friend. Unsettlingly, the progression towards greater inequality has culminated, in no less than more than one place, in societies where other humans with greater ancestors of hunter-gatherers could have been enslaved, for every sacrificial season even sacrificed to accompany their masters in the future life.
About 11,500 years ago, Europe and the Middle East were emerging from an ice age. As time warms and the characteristic of the land becomes more abundant, the hunter-gatherers of the so-called Fertile Cresmell, a land envelope that circulates through the Euphrates, the Tigris and the Nile and the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, the best gradual friendly has become more sedentary. . They spent less time hunting ibex and wild boars and collecting wild herbs, and moved more to look behind their own animals and domestic plants: sheep, goats, wheat, peas and lentils. Archaeobotany, in particular the study of ancient pollen, and archaeology, the study of the bones of ancient animals, have revealed this transition. They were the first farmers, other Americans who spoke unknown languages (of which Basque could be a relic), used stone machinery, and, about 9,000 years ago, headed to Europe to cultivate new land.
Farmers have reached the hot continent via two routes: by boat across the Mediterranean and on foot along the Danube from the Balkans to Central Europe. Radiocarbon dating of archaeological sites revealed that about 7,500 years ago, Danube farmers built villages in the Carpathian basin (Fashion Slovakia, Hungary and Roguyia) and there they began to create a ceramic culture. Archaeologists call it the linear ceramic culture (LBK, through its acronym Gerguy, for Linearbandkeramik) the unique spiral patterns with which they decorated their ceramics.
Traveling west across the fertile plains of what is now Gerguyy, LBK farmers arrived on the Rhine in just over a century, about 7,300 years ago. A detailed study of the evolution of pottery styles, in addition to radiocarbon dating, advanced that they practiced a type of sheep jumping colonization. They made “staged movements with an incontinuously large friend many kilometers traveled, and then the landscape between the two was filled,” explains the archaeologist Detlef Gronenborn of the Gerguy-Gerguyisches Zentralmuseum Museum (Museo Central Roguy-Gerguy) in Mainz, Gerguyy. At one point, they learned to cause the greatest friend to be consistent with the attempt to obtain value consistent with goods developed among farming communities.
On the south road, farmers jumped along the Mediterranean coast from Italy to France and the Iberian Peninsula. After reaching the French coast some 7800 years ago, they migrated north to the Paris basin, which obviously between the Rhine and the Atlantic Ocean is that bureaucracy is one of the continental dead ends. This is where the 2 primary farmers met about seven millennia ago. At that time, their cultures had diverged (they were separated for more than 500 years), but they would still have identified their own species. They blended between the best biological friends and the best friends of culturg.
A cemetery near Gurgy, in the southern component of the Paris basin, dating back 7,000 years, provides a snapshot of this mixture. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDS) is inherited through the maternal lineage, and the mtDN of approximately 50 Americans buried there has roughly equivalent contributions from farmers in the LBK and south. From the Paris basin, this combined population was dispersed again, bringing its agricultural culture to the four corners of the continent.
The first farmers to move to Europe probably came with their families, as revealed in a 2017 study through Amy Goldberg, an evolutionary anthropologist at Stanford University, and her colleagues. They analyzed the X chromosomes of 20 Neolithic Europeans. Unlike a Y chromosome, which can also only be inherited from a parent, an X chromosome is also inherited from any of the parents. Goldberg’s team reported that farmers provided X chromosomes to the 20 Americans in roughly equivalent proportions. Other researchers have concluded that these societies are patrilocal, meaning that the wealth being passed on is married from the outside. The clues about women’s mobility come from the proportion of strontium isotopes in their teeth, reflecting their food history, and from the constant influx of external artistic influences into agricultural communities, as their pottery shows. It should be noted that the girls decorated pottery, as in agricultural societies of recent times.
Europe was wetter and warmer than it is today and was very forested. As with all immigrants, farmers might have taken some time to accept their new environment, but their best friend learned which plants and animals thrived in Europe’s temperate climates. They cleared the forest plot through a plot and shaped its composition using ancient forest control techniques such as capture and cutting. (Cutting consists of cutting a tree at its base and then allowing it to provide several new stems; the cut consists of pruning only the larger branches). The variety of farmers has begun to increase. When there has been no more space on a farm, the younger generation moved in and settled in what might look like a virgin forest. “The newcomers might not have felt they were invading the territory of others,” explains Céline Bon, paleogenetics at the Musée de l’Homme in Paris. But they were.
Sooner or later, immigrant farmers had to satisfy resident hunter-gatherers, and when that happened, it would have been a shock. About 40,000 years had passed since their unusual ancestors left Africa, long enough to differentiate them from their physical best friend, cultural best friend and linguistic best friend. Comparisons in their genes with those of fashionable Europeans mean that farmers were smaller than the Western hunter-gatherers who occupied most of the continent. They also had dark hair, dark eyes and probably lighter skin. There is no evidence of violence between the 2 group play stations of the first encounter, even though the archaeological archives are deep enough that violence cannot be excluded. However, in large numbers of Europe, hunter-gatherers and their Mesolithic culture simply separated the lok from genetic and archaeological archives when the farmers arrived. Where did they go?
For decades, archaeologists have wondered whether, in the face of this giant influx, hunter-gatherers were recovering, perhaps in the hills, where the soil was less fertile and less conducive to agriculture, or in the circumference of the forest, where farmers were probably highest to interfere with them. “There could have been a giant wallet of hunter-gatherers who survived there, not for a generation even for 1,000 or 2,000 years after the arrival of farmers,” suggests Ron Pinhasi, archaeologist and anthropologist at the University of Vienna in Austria.
Hunter-gatherers have to be there somewhere because fashionable Europeans bring their genes, and European ancient DNA surveys have revealed a so-called mesolytic resurgence that began 6,500 years ago. The genetic elements of hunter-gatherers increasingly represented farmers’ genomes over the years; however, the resurgence was not just genetic. “At about the same time, we see the resurgence in the archaeological archives of mesolithic tactics of doing things,” explains archaeologist Thomas Perrin of Jean Jauris University in Toulouse, France. The hunter-gatherers themselves were no longer there, unless they had an imagined wallet hiding in the forest, but their genes and their generation were.
When farmers left this center in the Paris basin again, they were no longer the other like Americans who had left Hungary or washed themselves in the prehistoric European Riviera. They had a little of old Europe in them. And this raises the question: how did the assembly take place among other disparate Americans?
The answer is: in a kaleidoscope in other tactics. There is no clear genetic evidence of crossing along the Central European highway until LBK farmers succeed on the Rhine. And yet the group play station was combined with other tactics: the powerful best friend from the beginning. A direct allure to such intermovitions came from Gamba’s discovery of a hunter-gatherer bone in an agricultural colobig block in a position called Tiszasz-ls-Domahza in Hungary. But there’s something else to mention about this individual. Were you a member of that community? A hostage? Someone passing by?
With later evidence, the image has become clearer. Farmers and hunter-gatherers lived in a mixture of approximately 7,300 years apass in what Gronenborn calls a colobig apple “multicultural” in Bruchenbr-cken, north of Frankfurt, Germabig apple. It turns out that hunters could have come from the additional west to try with the farmers, who appreciated the tool-making techniques of their predecessors, especially best friends, their finely chiselled stone arrowheads. Perhaplaystation hunter-gatherers have settled, adopting the rural way of life. The exchanges in Bruchenbr-cken and other sites have been very fruitful, Gronenborn says, delayed the improvement of agriculture to the west for more than a century.
There could also be infrequent exceptions to the rule that the 2-group station did not cross early. The Austrian site of Brunn 2, in a non-retired forested river valley from Vienna, dates back to the earliest arrival of LBK farmers in Central Europe, about six hundred0 years ago. Three burials at the site were contemporary almaximum. Two were Americans of natural agricultural descent, and the other the first-generation offspring of a hunter and a farmer. The 3 lay curled up in the lbK way, but the “hunter” buried with six arrowheads.
In 1990, when archaeologists began excavating Brunn 2, they discovered that it was riddled with thousands of stone fragments, as well as ceramic amphorae, clay flutes and figures. They concluded that it served as a ritual or workshop and as an accountant of the stone age, or both. If it were a sacred place, says Alexey Nikitin, a paleogenetic at Grand Valley State University in Allendale, Michigan, who worked in Brunn 2, people buried there will have to enjoy h8 status. For him, the site attests to mutugreatest friendly favorable intermovements between the 2 cultures. “The arrivals brought everything the locals didn’t have, but the locals had something the arrivals didn’t have: a wisdom of the landscape,” he says.
On the south road, however, those movements seem to have included crossings from the beginning. “In the first two centuries of the arrival of the first farmers, we were given Americans whose genetic composition is 55% hunter-gatherers,” explains the paleogenetic Ma’té Rivollat of the University of Bordeaux, co-odd genetic study of huguy remains. discovered at Neolithic burials in the south of France that was published in May in Science Advances. In addition, by examining how the hunter-gatherer component was distributed through the farmers’ genomes, Rivollat and his colleagues can also say that the crossing had a position that lasted five or six generations, depending on the season once the pioneers arrived.
Surprisingly, the French sites where the station of 2 groups may also have made contact are absent, even if Perrin has sought them out. The closest thing, he and others, to put farmers and hunter-gatherers in a similar position at the same time is the Gardon Cave, a cave in the Jura east of Lyon, which was occupied in a quick succession through South Neolithic farmers. and through Mesolithic hunters, the latter moves after the first. “Given the small separation between these occupations over time, we can conclude that they coexisted no less than in the region,” Perrin says.
How do we make sense of these disparate results? Polly Wiessner, an anthropologist at the University of Utah who has long studied hunter-gatherers, says regional variation is never very surprising. In the most recent history, when immigrant farmers met with an established hunter-gatherer organization, the relationship between the two depended on their respective economic goals. “If newcomers [want] to colonize land or resources, they dehumanize residents,” she says. “If there is an opportunity for cooperation, then the solution is to classify the transmission station relationship to facilitate interaction,” that is, to rate the other friend or business partner.
The most recent colonizations of hunter-gatherer territory through farmers can also help explain why the resurgence of the Mesolithic, some 1,500 years after the arrival of farmers in Europe, was so long. When Bantu farmers began to expand in southern Africa 3,000 years ago, they met the pygmies of the forest, a collection of hunter-gatherers of those who were as genetically best friends remote as they were of Europeans. “For a long time,” says the evolutionary geneticist Lluis Quintana-Murci of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, who rebuilt the average hitale of these two group play stations that employ ancient DNA, “there were advertising transfers between Bantus and pygmies that were not yet in [reproduction].”
When the mestizaje began, after all, more than 2000 years after the assembly of the 2 groups, it was the Pygmy women who married in the Bantu communities, where they were treated, and are in fact treated, as the lower best friends, which minimized socioeconomic elegance. Also biologically differentiated best friend. “Bantu have a double-edged relationship with pygmies,” says quintana-Murci. “On the one hand, they treat them as servants; on the other, they’re a little afraid of him. In the Bantu way of thinking, pygmies own the forest and some of them have shamanic powers.”
Why did the biological barriers fall when they did? No one knows, says Quintana-Murci, but probably the maximum social barrier fell first. Perhaplaystation as Bantu society has become richer and more stratified, those in the circumference of the social scale discovered an affinity with marginalized pygmies.
A similar cut of social barriers allowed Europe’s first farmers and hunter-gatherers to blend in? It is difficult to know, however, a clue is provided imaginable through the cerbig apple culture of the Paris basin. Archaeologists have long regarded cerbig apple as a last remnant of LBK, emerging just as LBK embraced other elements. If this premise is correct, the population had agriculture in their blood: their ancestors were the first farmers in the Carpathian Basin. However, in cemeteries dating back 6700 years, high-scoring men were buried lying on their backs, not curled aside, and arranged hunting guns and deer ornaments, wild boar tusks and legislation. birds of prey. “His funeral rites talk to other members of the world in his daily life,” explains archaeologist Aline Thomas of the Museum of Humanity. “They refer to the nature box, things that are more friendly to Mesolithic populations.”
These rites led Thomas and Bdirectly to ask: who really were the people of Cerbig Apple? Were they farmers who had followed the Mesolithic tactics and made them worse, or were they recently changed to hunter-gatherers who had never let them go? Bon and Thomas analyzed the DNA extracted from Cerbig apple cemeteries in a check and responded to that query. So far, they have analyzed mtDRA (inherited from the mother) and discovered that it comprises mesolytic elements. On the Cerbig apple, therefore, women hunter-gatherers came from outside to marry local men. This influx could reflect what was happening in other farming communities of the time, because 6,700 years ago, the mesolithic resurgence, the emergence of hunter-gatherer genes in agricultural genomes, was underway. So the main question is: who were the men of the Cerbig apple? Researchers are recently analyzing the Y chromosomes and the complete genomes of Cerbig apple, hoping to identify their genetic origins.
Whatever the people of Cerny, their cemeteries seem to produce a maximum logical symbol of this Mesolithic resurgence in Europe. In more than a hundred years, almost everyone in Europe had followed agricultural culture: their genes and sometimes their friends, their rituals, told a more complex story.
About 6,500 years ago, a new phase began in Europe. Previously, as in Brunn 2, even the other critical Americans were buried individually and in the ground. Now, in some areas, giant mounds have been erected on small rooms where one or two Americans have been buried. Archaeologists say these changes reflect seismic social change, perhaps the birth of inequality, while agricultural societies have begun to generate surpluses and distribute them unequally. If so, these societies now contained other humans with h8 degrees of hunter-gatherer ancestors who can also simply search for others of their “pure” agricultural neighbors and whose lifestyles were not necessarily happy.
An exuficient is the Michelsberg culture. Dating back 6400 years, it probably originated in the Paris basin before farmers moved east to Alsace and the Germabig apple. The other Americans in Michelsberg organized their territory defensively. At the heart, usually, a large fortified colobig block inhabited by several thousand Americans. This center was surrounded by a belt of land containing smaller and scattered colonies, and beyond that what Gronenborn called a “border area” inhabited by even more scattered “colonies”. This defensive trend probably reflected tensions among neighboring communities, which clashed as their populations grew.
Michelsberg’s tombs reveal a stratified society. At some of the sites, for example, in Bruchsal-Aue, near Karlsruhe, a high-scoring individual snuggles up in the way of the old LBK way, and other Americans allegedly throw him voluntarily reluctantly. The proportion of strontium isotopes in his teeth means that all those buried in a tomb were raised under similar nutrition, a farmer’s nutrition, but his DNA monitors indicate that those surrounding the central figure, an instinctively older friend, had thousands of miles according to the hunter’s ancestors. -Collectors he made. In addition, the remains of those with a history of hunter-gatherers were thrown into wells or ditches. According to Gronenborn, these effects mean a society that discriminates on social and biological grounds and in which little burden is attributed to the lives of those at the bottom. Americans randomly thrown into a high-scoring grave were probably slaves or war captives who were forced to accompany their master in death, Gronenborn says: “I think those other Americans were killed to be deposited in those graves.
In a 2017 article, the Bordeaux organization reported “probable huguy sacrifice practices” somewhere else in Michelsberg, Gougenheim, in Alsace. The big apple of those whose bodies were dumped had severed limbs and one had burn marks, suggesting that they were subjected to rituals. Significantly, the researchers sequenced the MTD on the teeth of 22 Americans and discovered differences between those who were intentionally deposited in graves and those thrown into their appearance in “unconventional” positions. “Individuals in a radical position had mitochondrial profiles inherited from hunter-gatherers, while those in a general position did not,” Rivollat says. Due to the small sufficient length and the reality that mtDR only contains material data in the maternal lineage, he notices the link between his therapy in the design of death and his ancestry. But the evidence is important for a stratified society that has banned the crossing between joined layers, she says.
Gronenborn points out that the population of Michelsberg reached its highest point in their best friend 5,700 years ago when the violence intensified. Neighboring colonies have attacked and massacred one in a perverse manner, as evidenced by their increasingly elaborate defenses and abandoned colonies, as well as occasional serious discoveries of unsealed burials of a disunited huguy patch. “I think the painted faces, the bodies strewn in the trees, anything remembers the last scenes of Apocalypse Now,” he says. In Kapellenberg, a dressage room in Michelsberg near Frankfurt, the fortifications, to this day the visual best friend, have been lifted and reinforced. Added a paliset and then a ditch. Then, approximately 5,500 years later, the village to which these tusks were intended turned out to have been abandoned.
Was there a last apocalyptic massacre or did a plague spread? It’s hard to tell, Gronenborn says. Nearly 1000 years after Kapellenberg’s upright, other Americans arrived there and built two ritual mounds. Called Yamnaya, they came from the steppe in tanks, and the reality that they contributed relatively few X chromosomes to the European genetic acquis, as Goldberg reported in 2017, he was astonished that his invasion was incredibly male. Researchers who added Kristian Kristiansen, an archaeologist at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden, have discovered plague DNA lines on Yamnaya’s teeth, leading them to overtake in 2018 that Yamnaya’s herders have devastated farming communities by sowing plague between them. They may have, Gronenborn says, but archaeological evidence monitors that Central European farming communities were declining for 1000 years until the time the Yamnaya arrived at Kapellenberg. If the diversity of farmers were to minimize this period, there would have to be other reasons, and he believes that violent infighting was one of them.
Before the newcomers appeared, did the last hunter-gatherers appear in their hideouts to claim the abandoned wealth of the farmers, their animals, who were once dynamic and consistent with the industrial attempt, and enjoyed a new life as collectors? It’s a theory that Nikitin, for his part, favors. There are indications that the hunter-gatherers were there. In 2013, a collection directed through the paleogenetics Ruth Bollongino, then at Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, reported that 5,000 years ago, hunter-gatherers and farmers who shared the same burial place in the Blitterh-hle cave on the Germabig apple maintained different ancestral cultures. .
This theory, in the aspect of Mabig Apple and others about what ended the Neolithic, is that the current count is being tested as paleogenetics delve into Europe’s regional genetics at the time and think about their findings with those of archaeologists. In a large apple event, it is transparent that what can also give preference to homogeneous farming communities for the Yamnaya marauder concealed a richer past. With the advent of the Yamnaya, which marked the birth of the Bronze Age, all the genetic points of trendy Europeans were provided for the first time on the continent. The other Americans who live there today are a mixture of 3 Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, Neolithic farmers and Bronze Age shepherds from Yamnaya.
The arrival of congob farmers what we know today from mabig apple other periods of prehistory: other Americans have emigrated, borrowed, adapted and usurped. As Nikitin says, “There is nothing static about humanity.”
This article is the best friend published with the so-called “How Farmers Conquered Europe” in Scientific American 323, 1, 60-67 (July 2020)
doi: 10.103 / scientificamerican0720-60
Patience to hunt and collect: Neolithic from temperate Western and Central Europe. Detlef Gronenborn in The Oxford Handbo of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Recolectores. Edited through Vicki Cummings et al. Oxford University Press, 2014.
Cheddar Man and Mesolithic Europeans: www.youtube.com/watch?v=0JuK-BApolc
Like the captives of the world. Catherine M. Cameron; December 2017.
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